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November 08, 2006

American Indians in Film

Changing Portrayals

By Andrew

By Ian Morgan, guest writer for Lucid Screening

There are four phases of Native American representation in American films. The silent era, which spanned from 1894 to the mid 1930s, includes very early motion camera footage, as well as such films as The Last of the Mohicans and The Vanishing American. With the advent of sound in movies, Western Talkies were created and constituted a large percentage of the American films released between the late 1930s and the 1950s. John Ford, the most famous Western film director, created a large number of these films, and Stagecoach and The Searchers, were two of his most well-known. During the Sixties, Seventies, and Eighties, films such as, Little Big Man created a more sympathetic image of Native Americans. Starting in the 1980s, the self-identification era has continued into the Twenty-First Century and includes films like Harold of Orange and The Fast Runner. The majority of the films of the first three eras stereotyped American Indians and portrayed them in demeaning and racist ways. Not until the self-identification era were these stereotypes deconstructed, allowing Native American characters in films to be portrayed in a just and fair way.

The Silent Era

Thomas Edison's short films made at the Black Maria Studio were the first pieces of motion picture footage to include images of Native Americans. His short clips, such as Ghost Dance in 1894 and Esquimaux Village in 1903, depicted American Indians and their lives in completely contrived and inaccurate ways. These short films and other feature films during the silent era were the first to present the stereotypes of the bloodthirsty and noble savage on screen, and would help to ingrain them in American minds. Referring to these early stereotypical images, author and film critic, Jacquelyn Kilpatrick observes, "The particular Indian on the screen, whether noble or savage might have been a screenwriter's fleeting invention, but the viewer was repeatedly exposed to the same general ideas about Indianess represented in the characters." (18).

In 1920, Clarence Brown and Maurice Tourneur directed The Last of the Mohicans, an adaptation of James Fennimore Cooper's famous novel, which features American Indians as both the bloodthirsty and noble savage. Magua, the evil Huron villain of the film, is a fantastic example of the bloodthirsty savage stereotype. He is menacing and disgusting, and every time he gets close to or touches Alice, one of the white females, she immediately faints from the shock of such a savage being close to her. To make sure that the audience understands what a menacing creature Magua is, the film text, which was the only narration during the silent era, describes his menacing presence as, "… the leering face of Magua …" Animalistic behavior is prevalent in Magua, as he frequently carries his knife in his teeth. The wise British officers recognize his savagery and remark, "The varmint covets our scalps."

Fighting on the side of the British, during the French-Indian War, are the two remaining Mohicans, one being the young warrior Uncas, who represents the noble savage. Although the audience recognizes him as a "good guy", it is also made clear that he is inferior to any white character. This is illustrated by the short, simple phrases that he is capable of speaking. Another example of Uncas' inherent immaturity is when he tries to express his feelings for Cora by giving her what looks to be a dirty rag. This helps to form the audience's opinion that he has a child-like intellect.

Hawkeye, the adopted white brother of Uncas, functions as the white hero character, who, after learning the ways of the Indians, ends up out-Indianing them, due to his superior blood. Sensing creatures in nature, and shooting rifles extremely accurately, both of which have been attributed as "Indian" characteristics, are performed better by the white Hawkeye. For example, just before a Huron ambush is about to take place, Hawkeye spots a hidden Huron warrior in a tree and shoots him before he can get off a shot to kill one of the Mohicans. At the end of the film, Uncas is killed in a battle with Magua, but being the superior "Indian", Hawkeye easily slays the evil savage.

Another theme in The Last of the Mohicans is anti-miscegenation. Developed from the belief that the savage stereotype was real, the anti-miscegenation theme refers to the idea that white and Native American characters should not become romantic partners, and therefore, should not be portrayed as such in the cinema. Of course, The Last of the Mohicans provides one of the most famous examples of the anti-miscegenation theme when, at the end of the film, a possible romance between Cora and Uncas is denied as they both meet their tragic deaths.

Another defining film of the silent era, George Seitz's 1925 The Vanishing American unfolds in three parts, with each part perpetuating the savage stereotypes. The first section of the movie deals with the theme of evolution, particularly, the conquering and dying-out of inferior indigenous peoples. To support the message that indigenous extinction is a necessary process, Seitz depicts one of the soon-to-be conquered tribes as unusually lazy and focuses on one character, Mog, who seems to sleep throughout the whole day. Another apparently inferior behavior that an indigenous group exhibits is bathing in mud, as the audience sees a child in a mud bath on several occasions.

Kit Carson, "master plainsman" and hero of the second section of the film, provides a perfect comparison between the white and Indian races. At one point Carson says, "These Indians are my friends", while at the same time taking away their land and slaughtering any dissenters. Even though the Indians are his friends, he seems to know that it is natural and inevitable that they disappear and submit to the white race.

A specific story in the evolution of races, the third segment of the film follows the life of a noble savage named Nophaie. Represented a bit more positively than Uncas in The Last of the Mohicans, Nophaie is portrayed as one of the smarter savages. This idea is confirmed when he realizes the superiority of the Christian religion to his own beliefs and disgustedly halts his traditional prayer and picks up The Bible. Salvation is his when, about to breathe his last breath, Nophaie asks Miss Warner to read him a passage from his beloved Bible. So, even though he must die, Nophaie accepts the reality of Indian extinction and is thankful to have learned about the white man's God.

"Although the long-standing stereotypes of noble and bloodthirsty savage were always present, in the very early films the noble savage prevailed …" (Kilpatrick 22). Kilpatrick's statement is true for these two films. Yet, although The Vanishing American is "… an ambitious work aiming to portray the plight of American Indians as the culmination of an inevitable historical process of domination wrought by ‘progress'" (Riley 58), it denies the responsibility of the white race for the genocide of the Native Americans, and it perpetuates a stereotypical image. "Thus the similarities of the Indians to living, breathing people are replaced with similarities to a stereotype of an idealized savage, and their presence in this film remains largely that of a popular construction of the dominant media …" (Riley 70).

John Ford and the Western Talkies of the Forties and Fifties

The Western Talkies of the Forties and Fifties continued the common stereotypes of the silent era and relied even more heavily on the bloodthirsty savage, which "… became more popular toward the end of the silent film era." (Kilpatrick 22). The addition of sound allowed most characters to engage in a lot more dialogue than had been normal in the silent era. But for American Indian characters, the limited, simple phrase, Tonto-talk didn't change. Kilpatrick notes that, "Most had little to say beyond the ubiquitous grunt, which could mean anything from ‘I'm pleased' to ‘scalp him and kill him, and then throw him over an anthill.'" (36-37). What emerged from Western Talkies, which had not been nearly as prevalent in the silent era, was the theme of the frontier. Serving as the definitive adventure setting, "… the frontier was cherished as a locus of ultimate challenge, a right of passage through which the civilized white American male earned his superior position on the continent and in the world." (Kilpatrick 39). Of course, the American Indians were thought to be the quintessential antagonists for a frontier film and so, "… the western genre in novels and film clearly positions the American Indian as the savage (bloodthirsty or otherwise) who is part of the wilderness that civilization must overcome in order to bring order to a wild continent." (Kilpatrick 40).

Although Native Americans are barely seen at all, there is plenty of evidence of the Indian animalistic savagery in John Ford's 1939 film, Stagecoach. A burned village, ferry, and a charred, bloody, dead woman introduce the audience to the unthinkable acts of the hated Indians. Further evidence of the heathen ways of the Indians is indicated by the description, "the Apache Butcher, Geronimo", and the fear that the name strikes in all of the stagecoach's passengers.

As in The Vanishing American, a purposeful contrast is made between the white and Indian races in Stagecoach. For example, as the Indian warriors wildly chase the stagecoach and allow themselves to get shot, one by one, each of the male passengers, including the drunk Doc Boone, successfully kill savages with each, well-aimed shot. Even without any romantic interests between the races in the film, John Ford was able to include his opinions on miscegenation. When it looks as if the Apaches are going to catch the stagecoach and capture or kill the occupants, Mr. Hatfield plans to kill Mrs. Mallory and save her from the unimaginable humiliation of being snatched up by Indian hands.

Seventeen years after Stagecoach, John Ford released The Searchers, which portrayed Native Americans in an even more unsavory way than his previous films. As ruthless savages, the Comanche (or Comanch, as they are referred to in the film) are an immense success. After searching for the band of Indians that slaughtered their cattle, a group of brave settlers realize with horror that slaughtering the cattle was simply a ploy by the Comanche to draw the men away from their settlement, and one of them exclaims, "This is a murder raid."

Similar methods to those used in Stagecoach, are used in The Searchers to display the racial superiority of whites. The white men never get shot off their horses, and small groups of settlers are repeatedly able to defend themselves against and defeat entire Comanche war parties (The Searchers). Also, it becomes evident that Uncle Ethan's nephew, Martin, can't read, and it is implied that this is due to the fact that he has a small amount of Indian blood. Because of the assumed superiority of whites, the settlers seem fairly confident that, despite the threat of the primitive savages, they will be able to conquer the frontier. This belief is exemplified by the settlers' statements, "It just so happens we're Texicans" and "Someday, this country will be a fine place to be."

One of the most important themes pushing the plot of The Searchers is anti-miscegenation. First of all, Ethan does not respect Martin because he is "one-eighth Cherokee" and plus, he "looks like a half-breed." Ethan again displays his distaste for race-mixing when, referring to the white women living with the Indians, he mutters, "They ain't white anymore." Most significantly, throughout the story, Uncle Ethan plans on killing his niece, Debbie, if he is ever able to steal her back from Chief Scar, for she has been poisoned by her time with the Indians. Lori agrees with Ethan's thinking when she says that Debbie is better off dead after she's been "used by the Indians again and again."

From the examples described, Ford's films, which are some of the most well-known and appreciated Westerns, "… reinforce the traditional Western pattern of ascribing the most extreme violence and brutality to Indians much more often than to white characters." (Nolley 80). In addition, "… all of Ford's plots … construct Indians as a savage presence set in opposition to the advance of American civilization, particularly as that civilization is embodied in white families." (Nolley 80).

The 1960s and 1970s: New Symapthies, New Stereotypes in Arthur Penn's Little Big Man

The 1960s and 1970s brought a new attitude of sympathy towards Native Americans in film. All of a sudden, "… Native Americans were beginning to be considered one of the oppressed minorities in America." (Kilpatrick 66). Combine this with America being "… a nation charged with emotion fueled by Kennedy's assassination, an increasingly unpopular war …" (Kilpatrick 67), and together, these sentiments "… produced a longing to ‘be' American Indian." (Kilpatrick 66). However, these feelings also led to new stereotypes of Indians, perhaps more positive than in previous decades, but still unjust and inaccurate. Quickly, Native Americans became a symbol of every injustice in the world, and consequently, they were denied the right to be seen as individuals. Kilpatrick explains that "The images and stereotypes during this period made them ideally, complex, sympathetic subjects." (71). Not only were American Indians made into the universal symbol of the victim, but they were presented as "… mystical people …", "… who revered the Earth …" and were "naturally at peace …" (Kilpatrick 65). This stereotype functioned to depict the Native American as a vastly different, unusual being, who only existed in the past. Perhaps the reason that these new sympathetic portrayals were not free of stereotypes is because white people were still in charge of making the films and telling the stories.

Largely referred to as a revisionist Western, Arthur Penn's 1970 Little Big Man fell right into the trap of stereotypical images that the sympathetic era laid. First, the film took the liberty of creating some all-encompassing characteristics of the "Indian way." This is evident in a few comments that Jack Crabb, the narrator makes. When his pregnant, Cheyenne wife, Sunshine, leaves the teepee and wanders off alone, Jack announces that she has gone off "to have her baby Indian style." Later, after observing his long-lost Swedish wife disrespectfully address her Cheyenne husband in English, Jack comments, "Olga had learned Cheyenne." Another example of how the film stereotypes the "Indian way" is the way in which Old Lodge Skins is presented. Portrayed as a mystical seer, who is always referring to his symbolic dreams, "… he becomes the personification of the noble Indian. The camera work glorifies him in low-angle shots against the sky." (Kasdan and Tavernetti 130). Also, although Jack mentions that it is not a usual Cheyenne custom, the film insinuates that polygamy is some sort of pan-Indian cultural norm.

In many ways Little Big Man is an anti-war film, used to reflect the public's opposition to the Vietnam War. To start with, General George Custer and his cavalry are presented as insane murderers, and this is made even more evident by the flute music that plays during the Washita Massacre scene. More anti-government feeling is expressed through the representation of the lying, deceiving Alardyce Merriweather, who is supposed to be a metaphor for the U.S. Government. Even though I appreciate criticism of the government, the symbolism in this movie is problematic. Basically, it posits the military, specifically Custer, as the evildoer and oppressor, and in effect, lets the rest of white society off the hook.

In summary, Little Big Man romanticizes the American Indian characters as ecological caretakers, and Margo Kasdan and Susan Tavernetti see the same problem, saying, "Through the portrayal of the Cheyenne Indians, Little Big Man evokes a romanticized image of the ‘pure life'." (129). The film also turns the Native Americans into symbolic victims, "… for who the audience has great empathy." (Kasdan and Tavernetti 125). Finally, the problem that is at the base of all the other problems with Little Big Man is "… the story unfolds through the eyes of a white man …" (Kasdan and Tavernetti 126).

The Self-identification Era and an Indian film aesthetic

With a few exceptions, the self-identification era began in the 1980s and along with it, developed an Indian film aesthetic. In other words, this was the first era that Native Americans were allowed to be in charge of making films and thus, it was the first time they were allowed to present themselves in film. The films that have come out of this period thus far have been contemporary, personal tales that succeed in deconstructing the stereotypes presented in past eras. One of these films, Powwow Highway, is liked by most people that have seen it, and a reason that it "… was so well received by American Indians is that they recognized it all, the story, the people and the places, a rare thing in depictions of Native Americans." (Kilpatrick 115). In the 1998 Chris Eyre and Sherman Alexie collaboration, Smoke Signals, "… Native Americans are shown as contemporary humans with contemporary problems," which is a relatively new concept in cinematic representations (Kilpatrick 230). However, this is not to say that every movie about Native Americans since the 1980s has been free of stereotypes. Hollywood blockbusters like Dances With Wolves always seem to make some mistake in their portrayals of Indians. Kilpatrick outlines the shortcoming of the film, saying, "The main flaw of Dances With Wolves, however, remains the problem of appropriation of identity …" (128).

Harold of Orange, a film without the problem of appropriation of identity, is a great example of the cultural humor that can come alive when Native Americans get the chance to tell their own stories. Written by Gerald Vizenor and directed by Richard Weise in 1984, Harold of Orange is a comedy about a contemporary version of the trickster character from the legends of many Native peoples. Every thing Harold says and does is ripe with ironic humor that requires, at least, a slight knowledge of American Indian history to understand. For a friendly baseball game between the reservation residents and the board members of a non-profit organization, Harold makes t-shirts as jerseys; red ones with the word "Indians" on them and white ones with the word "Anglos" on them. Then, he assigns the white board members as the "Indians" team and the Indians as the "Anglos." To add even more trickery to the situation, Harold is able to switch in between the teams as he pleases. Harold of Orange is a film that could only have been done correctly within the Native American aesthetic. Kilpatrick sums it up saying, "For an American Indian audience, the film is an enjoyable romp through an issue a minute, told by a delightful bunch of tricksters." (192).

A more recent Native American-made film is Zacharias Kunuk's 2001 The Fast Runner. Like Harold of Orange, The Fast Runner deals with a cultural legend, except this time, it is the story of how an Inuit village overcomes their curse of evil. "It came to us like death" says an elder character during a flashback of some disturbing event in a cave. It turns out that this flashback details the time when evil entered the lives of the villagers. Later, when Oki and his gang are about to ambush Atanarjuat and his brother, the same sinister cackle that was present during the flashback can be heard. Obviously, this cackle lets the audience know that this horrible act is the work of the evil spirit. But, there is also the presence of a good spirit, as is evidenced by the appearance of a ghost, who guides Atanarjuat along the ice and helps him make the giant leap over the water hole when he is running from Oki. Also aiding Atanarjuat is the trickster spirit, as embodied by the white rabbit. First, Quilikalik calls on the trickster to guide them in the direction of Oki's clan, and then the rabbit tricks Oki into eating him and making Oki momentarily forget his past animosity with Atanarjuat. The myth is completed when Quilikalik and Grandmother summon the evil spirit inside the same cave as the original flashback. "To drive away from all of us the evil", the two elders use ceremonial walrus tusks and other bones to banish the evil spirit from the clan.

The Fast Runner is a legitimate and fair representation of Native peoples because it is about a specific legend, of a specific tribe, told in a traditional way. There are no pan-Indian stereotypes and no sympathetic white heroes. In fact, there are no white characters in the film at all.

By examining the representations of Native Americans in film, it becomes clear that most Native American representations are not Native Americans at all, but European interpretations (Cobb 210). The silent era and the Western Talkies depicted American Indians in a Eurocentric and white-supremacist manner because, being that they were always portrayed as bloodthirsty or noble savages, who were inferior to the white characters. Then, Indians became symbolic of white counterculture's feelings about the Vietnam War (Cobb 210). Kilpatrick makes a very logical comment about the problematic representations characterized in these three eras, saying, "Perhaps the problem is in telling a story about Indians. What about the stories Indians tell of themselves?" (179). In the 1980s, 1990s, and beyond, Native Americans have finally been able to do this, and the resulting films have been, accurate, self-affirming representations of American Indians.

Works Cited

Cobb, Amanda J. "This Is What It Means to Say Smoke Signals: Native American Cultural Sovereignty." Hollywood's Indian: The Portrayal of the Native American in Film. Ed. Peter C. Rollins and John E. O'Connor. Expanded ed. Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky, 2003. 206-228.

The Fast Runner. Dir. Zacharias Kunuk. Perf. Natar Ungalaaq, Sylvia Ivalu, Peter-Henry Arnatsiaq, and Lucy Tulugarjuk. Igloolik Isuma Productions, 2003.

Harold of Orange. Dir. Richard Weise. Perf. Charlie Hill, James Noah, and Cathleen Fuller. Film in the Cities, 1984.

Kilpatrick, Jacquelyn. Celluloid Indians: Native Americans and Film. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1999.

Kasdan, Margo and Susan Tavernetti. "Native Americans in a Revisionist Western: Little Big Man." Hollywood's Indian: The Portrayal of the Native American in Film. Ed. Peter C. Rollins and John E. O'Connor. Expanded ed. Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky, 2003. 121-136.

The Last of the Mohicans. Dir. Clarence Brown and Maurice Tourneur. Perf. Wallace Beery, Barbara Bedford, Alan Roscoe, Lillian Hall, and Harry Lorraine. Maurice Tourneur Productions, 1920.

Little Big Man. Dir. Arthur Penn. Perf. Dustin Hoffman, Faye Dunaway, Chief Dan George, and Martin Balsam. 1970. DVD. Paramount Home Entertainment, 2003.

Nolley, Ken. "The Representation of Conquest: John Ford and the Hollywood Indian (1939-1964)." Hollywood's Indian: The Portrayal of the Native American in Film. Ed. Peter C. Rollins and John E. O'Connor. Expanded ed. Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky, 2003. 73-90.

Riley, Michael J. "Trapped in the History of Film: The Vanishing American." Hollywood's Indian: The Portrayal of the Native American in Film. Ed. Peter C. Rollins and John E. O'Connor. Expanded ed. Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky, 2003. 58-72.

The Searchers. Dir. John Ford. Perf. John Wayne, Jeffrey Hunter, Vera Miles, Ward Bond, and Natalie Wood. 1956. VHS. Warner Home Video, 1998.

Stagecoach. Dir. John Ford. Perf. John Wayne, Claire Trevor, Andy Devine, John Carradine, and Thomas Mitchell. 1939. VHS. Vestron Video, 1985.

The Vanishing American. Dir. George B. Seitz. Perf. Richard Dix, Lois Wilson, and Noah Beery. Famous Players-Lasky Corporation, 1925.

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