November 20, 2006
Afrocentrism and Alternative Film Narratives
The Formation of a New Cinematic Language
By Ian Morgan, guest writer for Lucid Screening
When I first conceived of this idea, I thought the topics of Afrocentric philosophy and alternative film narratives would be very specific. Through my research, I quickly realized that these ideas were much more broad and all-encompassing in black culture and expression. Consequently, my thesis that the Afrocentric film philosophy supports the use of alternative narratives, may seem quite obvious. In fact, it could be argued that Afrocentric film philosophy, by definition, supports alternative narratives. I agree. So, my job is to illustrate how this happens and provide examples through analyses of several films including, Sweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song and Daughters of the Dust.
"Afrocentrism is a critical perspective that places African ideals at the center of any analysis that involves African culture and behavior." (Yearwood, Black Film as a Signifying Practice, 75). By this definition, essentially what Afrocentric film philosophy means is that the content, structure, and evaluation of black cinema must be based on the black experience. In an Afrocentric context, black film becomes "…legitimate cultural expression…" (Yearwood, Black Film as a Signifying Practice, 8). Because the majority of film is based on the dominant, white society's experience and culture, Afrocentric philosophy calls for the formation of a new cinematic language. Gladstone Yearwood asserts that the best black cinema deals with models that differ from classical cinema ("Introduction," 10). Due to the divergence from traditional film, sales of Afrocentric films are limited and there is a general lack of acceptance, just as there was an initial lack of acceptance for abstract art (Yearwood, "Introduction," 155).
Molefi Asante expands upon the notion of Afrocentrism in his book, Afrocentricity. "No longer are we looking whitely through a tunnel lit with the artificial beams of Europe…" he says (1). Afrocentrism creates the necessity for a new vision and a new reality, one in which all African people will participate. This participation Asante terms the African Cultural System (Afrocentricity, 2). One component stressed by Asante is evaluating any suggested ideas that are contradictory to one's own existence. He urges Africans to ask themselves, "Is it in the best interests of the African people?" (Afrocentricity, 45). An example of not using this evaluation, Asante says, is when black people adopt Islam as a religion and then feel that they need to learn the Arabic language in order to advance their spirituality. This is not in accordance with the Afrocentric philosophy because people are applying another peoples' definition of spirituality and language to their own life. From this example, Asante makes it clear that a people must be able to control their own language.
In addition, Yearwood outlines eight Afrocentric elements in film (Black Film as a Signifying Practice, 77). First, polyrhythms, or the simultaneous presentation of multiple themes and motifs will be present. Second, there will be a certain dimensionality of expression, such as a voice behind the voice. Third, there will be a curvilinear plot. Fourth, an intensification and repetition of images is called for. Fifth, the project must elevate the whole, as in all Africans or members of the African Diaspora. Sixth, there will be a lyrical approach to the narrative. Seventh, a sense of free improvisation will be present. Eighth, the film will focus on storytelling as though the story is the fully contained idea of the film. As will become evident, these eight elements directly tie into the use of alternative narratives.
To discuss alternative narratives, I must first define what I'm basing the word "alternative" on. What I mean by "alternative" is differing from classical Hollywood narratives that are widely based on Aristotelian poetics. Basically, the classical narrative creates a story that is coherent in time, editing, and dominant social positions. One of the most highly visible aspects of the classical narrative is the linear plot. Hollywood's undying attempt to make narratives seem real involves the use of identifiable, white heroes in easy to follow stories that move forward in time like the"…notion of progress in Western history." (Yearwood, Black Film as a Signifying Practice, 223). As a result, the viewer usually becomes passive, watching only for pleasure and expecting overly cathartic endings. The classical Hollywood narrative is an industrial consumerist based model of narrative that Yearwood compares to the Ford Assembly Line in the early 1900s (Black Film as a Signifying Practice, 151).
In talking about alternative narratives, I must assert that narratives include both the content and form of the story. To recognize alternative narrative forms, one must examine the black narrative tradition. In doing so, it becomes clear that the spoken word, or nommo, is at the basis of most of these traditions. Through spoken word, a speaker can express subtleties, pleasures and potentials that are evident in the sermons of black gospel preachers and the songs of blues musicians (Asante, "The Afrocentric Idea," 16). Traditionally, black speech develops a loyalty to rhythm. Examples of this can be seen, as Amiri Baraka discusses, in the West African song tradition, in which the leader sings a few lines followed by a response from the chorus (qt. in Asante, "The Afrocentric Idea," 20).
Relating to film, the spoken word developed into oral folklore in the black tradition that was "…found first in slave narratives…" (Rose 29). Improvisation during folktales became prevalent and allowed for more fluidity, lifted limits on closure, and allowed the story to go on for as long as the audience demanded. During these oral presentations, speakers utilized imitation of public figures, dramatic gestures, voice shifts, rhetorical questions, and emotional expressions to help convey their stories in a more interesting way. Thus, oral storytelling became a vehicle for individual creativity and performance (Yearwood, Black Film as a Signifying Practice, 144). There also was a focus on space as a continuum instead of linear time.
The open forms of the African tradition allow for the use of alternative narrative content, of which the black cultural background is the foundation. D. Soyini Madison maintains that oral narratives are a "…struggle of memory against forgetting." (184). This memory is based on descriptions of the resiliency of black people that started with slave narratives and is still evident in the blues, which combines "…lament as well as celebration." (Yearwood, Black Film as a Signifying Practice, 133). Another aspect of narrative content that is based in black folklore is the use of the specific story to emphasize an underlying truth but not be based on exact fact; an aspect perfectly displayed in the popular African-American cultural myths.
The significance of African-American myths is that they provide "…an explanation for the human condition…" (Asante, "The Afrocentric Idea," 23). They also preserve cultural history through themes of reincarnation, the ever-presence of dead spirits, self-discovery, hope and solutions for the collective advancement of the entire people. There are several notable, mythic characters in African-American culture that are based on real historical figures. One is Harriet Tubman, who is seen as "the Great Mother" that cares for the entire world through the great love she possesses for humanity (Asante, "The Afrocentric Idea," 26). John Henry, another actual person in history, has become symbolic of African-Americans' reliance on physical strength during the early struggles of being dragged to America as slaves. The militant, radical mythical figure, known as Stagolee, has become a very important legend, influencing such black leaders as Malcolm X and Marcus Garvey (Asante, "The Afrocentric Idea," 26). These mythical characters and their accompanying myths constitute a large portion of the base for alternative narrative content in film. Clearly, the narrative forms and content are supported by an Afrocentric philosophy because they are based on African and African-American traditions.
An analysis of Melvin Van Peebles' independently written, directed, produced, edited, scored, and acted Sweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song can easily reveal how the narrative content in this film is completely different from the content of classical narratives. Huey P. Newton summed up the importance of the alternative content of Sweetback when he said it was "…dealing in revolutionary terms." (qt. in Van Peebles, Sweet Sweetback, 5). Essentially, the goal of the film was to start reversing the process of colonization by white society, or as Van Peebles says, "…to get the Man's foot out of our ass." (Van Peebles, Sweet Sweetback, 66). He decided to do this through "the radicalization of a stud." (Van Peebles, Sweet Sweetback, 10). St. Clair Bourne feels that the film draws attention to necessary political and ideological questions through this stud character's awakening of political consciousness that in turn, leads him to act on behalf of the community (Bourne 56). One other display of alternative content is the fact that Van Peebles had the black hero, Sweetback, live. Asked as to why he did this, Van Peebles responded simply, "I got tired of seeing black guys killed." (Van Peebles, Sweet Sweetback, 19).
Not only does Sweetback display alternative content, alternative narrative forms are also present. For example, the tradition of spoken word is used when Sweetback's inner voice speaks to him saying, "Come on feet, cruise with me…" (Yearwood, Black Film as a Signifying Practice, 205). In fact, sound is used as an integral part of the film in its signification of black cultural traditions. Also, because the film is a "…series of elements that are more symbolic and metaphoric than literal" (Van Peebles, Sweet, Sweetback, 60), a correlation can be drawn to the cultural practice of using stories to symbolize underlying truths rather than exact facts.
Julie Dash's 1991 film, Daughters of the Dust, is another example of a film that incorporates alternative narrative forms. The loose plot structure is definitely non-linear with a preference to focus on space as opposed to the classical focus on time. An example is when the Unborn Child appears in several scenes, and it is clear the Unborn Child's presence is not consistent with the time that the rest of the scene inhabits. Multiple points of view and narrators are provided by the characters of Nana, Eula, and the Unborn Child. This combined with constant flashbacks and flash-forwards compels Cade Bambara to describe the narrative of Daughters of the Dust as using "digressions and meanderings" (qt. in Yearwood, Black Film as a Signifying Practice, 220-221).
The narrative content of Daughters of the Dust is unabashedly different from the classical narrative in that women are portrayed as a source of value and in that history is told by black people from a black point of view. Physical memory of the black experience is provided by the island setting off the coast of South Carolina. Another piece of content in the film, which is seldom touched upon in most films, is the conflict between the African traditions and the white Christian religion. Finally, the theme of migration in Daughters of the Dust represents a "…rich symbolic metaphor" in black culture (Yearwood, Black Film as a Signifying Practice, 228).
Other examples of films or filmmakers that could be considered part of the Afrocentric philosophy due to their alternative narratives include Spike Lee's Girl 6. Heavily influenced by hip-hop music and the musicians Charles Mingus and Archie Shepp, Lee utilizes character monologues, direct address, jump cuts, flashbacks, hallucinations, as well as unusual camera placement, compositions, and editing (Yearwood, Black Film as a Signifying Practice, 3-4). Also included in Girl 6 are references to cultural icons Dorothy Dandridge and Pam Grier. All in all, the film "received lukewarm reviews because of its unusual narration…" (Yearwood, Black Film as a Signifying Practice, 3).
An independent black film from the 1930s that includes some alternative narrative form is Hellbound Train. Although focused on religion, it is unlike Hollywood religion films, such as Hallelujah, in that it shuns a regular storyline. Instead, S. Torriano Berry describes it as a series of short, loosely related plays (268). Sankofa, Haile Gerima's extraordinary film, uses a unique form of narrative, in which the story is relayed from the character of Mona to Shola to Shango to Nunu to Joe to Lucy and back to Shola. This structure "…creates a fresh new Afrocentric film style." (Berry 277).
Bill Gunn is a black, independent filmmaker, who made the film Ganja and Hess, which depicts the black experience in an alternative way in comparison to common depictions in Hollywood. Another Afrocentric filmmaker, Kathleen Collins, is described as "…never concerned about ‘going against the grain'…" (Klotman 2). Also, an example of an unconventional filmmaker, Charles Burnett's alternative style is displayed in the fact that he likes to use non-professional actors because he feels they can give film spontaneity (Klotman 3).
The films Sweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song, Daughters of the Dust, Girl 6, Hellbound Train, and Sankofa, as well as the work of Bill Gunn, Kathleen Collins, and Charles Burnett provide concrete examples of how Afrocentric philosophy supports the use of alternative narratives. Of course, there are many other examples in black film, and conversely, there are many black films that could not be considered Afrocentric due to their lack of alternative narrative qualities.
Works Cited
Asante, Molefi Kete. Afrocentricity. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press, 1988.
---, "The Afrocentric Idea." African American Communication and Identities: Essential Readings. Ed. Ronald L. Jackson II. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, 2004. 16-28.
Berry, S. Torriano, Venise T. Berry. The 50 Most Influential Black Films: A Celebration of African-American Talent, Determination, and Creativity. New York: Kensington Publishing Corp., 2001.
Bourne, St. Clair. "Sweet, Sweetback's Baadasssss Song and the Development of the Contemporary Black Film Movement." Black Cinema Aesthetics: Issues in Independent Black Filmmaking. Ed. Gladstone L. Yearwood. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for African American Studies, 1982. 53-66.
Klotman, Phyllis Rauch. "Introduction: Contemporary African American Filmmakers and Echoes of the Past." Screenplays of the African American Experience. Ed. Phyllis Rauch Klotman. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1991. 1-9.
Madison, D. Soyini. "‘That Was My Occupation': Oral Narrative, Performance, and Black Feminist Thought." African American Communication and Identities: Essential Readings. Ed. Ronald L. Jackson II. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, 2004. 175-188.
Rose, Vattel T. "Afro-American Literature as a Cultural Resource for a Black Cinema Aesthetic." Black Cinema Aesthetics: Issues in Independent Black Filmmaking. Ed. Gladstone L. Yearwood. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for African American Studies, 1982. 27-40.
Van Peebles, Melvin. Sweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song: A Guerilla Filmmaking Manifesto. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 2004.
---, "Sweet, Sweetback's Baadasssss Song and the Development of Contemporary Black Cinema." Black Cinema Aesthetics: Issues in Independent Black Filmmaking. Ed. Gladstone L. Yearwood. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for African American Studies, 1982. 53-66.
